Consumer vs Commercial Loans

CONSUMER LOANS VS COMMERCIAL LOANS Prepared By:|   | |   | Rohit Iyer| 11FN-082| Sahil Gupta| 11IB-069| Consumer Loans * Consumer loans are those loans which are required by a person for their personal needs. * If a car loan(finance or lease) is obtained by a company/individual for commercial purposes it is a commercial finance where as if the same kind of car loan is availed by a an individual who would use that car for his personal needs and would not gonna earn rent from that car that is considered a consumer loan.Hence, we can say that consumer loans would not become a source of earning for the borrower, * Examples:- Credit Cards, Personal Finance, Car Finance, Mortgage Finance Features of a personal loan * Variable interest rate: – A Variable Interest Rate Personal Loan has an interest rate that may change during the loan term. Accordingly your personal loan repayment may change throughout the life of the loan. With Variable Interest Rate Personal Loans you can make e arly or additional repayments without incurring any penalties. Fixed interest rate: – A Fixed Interest Rate Personal Loan has an interest rate that stays the same for the full loan term. The loan repayment should not change due to interest rate changes throughout the full term of the loan. With a Fixed Interest Rate Personal Loan you cannot pay extra to get ahead in your repayments. The repayment amount specified in your loan contract needs to be paid each week, fortnight or month as per the arrangement until the loan is paid in full. If additional payments are made, charges may be incurred. Secured: – A secured personal loan is a loan in which the borrower pledges an asset eg a car or property as collateral for the loan. The debt is then secured against the collateral so in the event that the borrower defaults the lender can take possession of the asset used as collateral and may sell it to satisfy the debt by regaining the amount originally lent to the borrower. * Un secured: – An unsecured personal loan requires no collateral or security. This type of loan is supported only by the borrower’s creditworthiness, rather than an item of collateral. Advantages: Personal loans do not require you to produce any collateral or security, like other loans. * There is no agent or middleman while obtaining this loan. * Banks are always ready to offer personal loans. * All that is required is that you need to satisfy the eligibility criteria. * You may use the loan for educational or even holiday purposes. * You can avail a personal loan during times of emergency when you are short of cash, since you need not answer too many questions to the bank. * You may avail personal loans according to your eligibility ranging anywhere from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 10,00,000. * It is better to avail a personal loan than to borrow cash on your credit card comparing the interest rate on both. Disadvantages: * The eligibility criteria are stricter in case of personal loans, since there is no security required and the paper work is minimum. * The bank checks on you capability to repay more than any other loan due to the same reason. * Since the bank has a higher risk while providing personal loans, they follow a list of approved categories of borrowers. Interest rates for personal loans could range from 12 % to 30 %, while the service charges and prepayment penalty are also very high. Commercial Loans * Commercial Loans are for business purposes. Usually given to  companies  to meet their various business needs. * This category of loan is introduced with the aim to help establishments sustain and grow. * Examples:- Running Finance, Cash Finance, Term Finance, Export Finance, FATR, FAPC II etc Some of its salient features can be described as below: Unrestricted funds: Money extendable under the commercial loans program has no restrictions. A business organization that is eligible for extended line of credit can inevitably find large amount tra nsferred to its bank account. The money can range from small dollar amounts to large sums. * Online Application: Filing of online application for grants is possible. Business owners just need to fill in an online form and submit the same with required documents. * Repayment Assurance: An enterprise owner has to provide assurance of repayment to the lender.This can be done by offering collateral support, credit card, property documents or any other valuables that provide enough assurance. Funds drawn against repayment assurances are kept extended. * Not Restrictive to Business Types: Commercial loans are available to all categories of entrepreneurs without restriction. It means that anyone from any industry can apply for finances. It is unimaginative how this loan support works for all. Just anyone can qualify irrespective of the industry type, small business or large organization. * 24 x7 hr Approval: Business Loan approval is kept open for 24 hours.So, any entrepreneur in an immedi ate need can apply for the grant. Banks are not imaginative and so deploy their work force on a 24Ãâ€"7 hr basis to get an organization funded. It is also true that the support staff does all the nitty-gritty, goes through the details, conducts enquiries, and then forwards the application to make grants available. * Good Credit Scores Required: Financers look for good credit scores before granting loan to an organization. So, an enterprise should work hard to build up its credit scores. Statistical Data:

Managerial Economics: A Game Theoretic Approach Essay

Using computations from Assignment 1, determine the market structure in which the low-calorie frozen, microwavable food company operates. The market structure that this company is likely to be in is the oligopoly structure whereby it could be in a duopoly or not. A duopoly is a market structure in which there are few firms in the industry. It is a market structure that lies between two market structures, that is, perfectly competitive market and monopoly. There are two or more sellers but the number of sellers is not as large as that of the ones present in a perfectly competitive market. The firm can be categorized as a monopoly mainly because of the cross sectional demand of the firm. The cross price elasticity demand of this particular firm is 0.68. This simply means that an increase in the prices of the competitors ’ product by one unit implies a 0.68 unit increase in terms of the quantity demanded. This basically implies that the cross sectional demand in inelastic. As such, the increase in price, decrease in price or generally the change of prices by this particular firm will not have a significant effect i n terms of the quantity demanded. This is the ideal representation of a firm in an oligopoly. The scope for individual action can be said to be way greater than in the case that the product was differentiated. In other words, one individual seller does not stand to lose in the case that he or she decides to charge a higher price. For this reason, this firm is definitely under an oligopoly market structure.(Webster, 2003) Outline a plan that will assess the effectiveness of the market structure for the company’s operations The issue of prices is basically the basis of the plan that is to be formulated. Generally, the price quantity combination depends upon the actions that are taken by the rest of the firms in the duopoly. In other words, the profit that is accrued by each and every seller is a result of the decisions that have been reached by each individual seller. The monopoly price that will be charged under this market structure could come with a series of consultations or simply individual experiments. For this particular firm to maximize its profits it needs to fix its price through an analysis with the assumption that there exists only one firm in the market. In the event that the firm fixes its price higher than this price, it will make gains. In the event that it fixes the price lower, it will lose. Given that business operations have changed from the market structure specified in the original scenario in Assignment 1, determine two (2) likely factors that might have caused the change. Predict the primary manner in which this change would likely impact business operations in the new market environment. The assumed market structure was that the firm was under a perfectly competitive market. It however turns out that the firm is in an imperfect market, a duopoly precisely. There are a number of f actors that are likely to have caused the change in this market structure. One of the reasons is that there probably existed one factor of production that is owned by a few firms only. As a result, not many firms are able to produce the product. Besides, it is also a possibility that there existed many firms initially in the market under a perfectly competitive market. These firms could have decided to merge thereafter and consolidated themselves into one major firm with the aim of reducing competition. In this way, the number of sellers reduces. Analyze the major short run and long cost functions for the low-calorie, frozen microwaveable food company given the cost functions below. Suggest substantive ways in which the low-calorie food company may use this information in order to make decisions in both the short-run and the long-run. TC = 160,000,000 + 100Q + 0.0063212Q2 VC = 100Q + 0.0063212Q2 MC= 100 + 0.0126424Q The total cost function is an increasing function of quantity produced. This implies that an increase in the quantity produced results to an increase in the cost of production. This is consistent with economic theory. The intercept of the total cost function is 160,000 meaning that when no quantity is produced, or rather when the quantity produced is zero, the fixed cost is 160,000. The Marginal Cost function is also an increasing function of quantity produced. It gives the effect of producing an extra unit. The firm should thereby produce up to a level whereby the cost of producing an extra unit does not exceed the returns from that particular unit.(Hirschey, 2008) Determine the possible circumstances under which the company should discontinue operations. Suggest key actions that management should take in order to confront these circumstances. Provide a rationale for your response The firm should discontinue its operations in the case that the Total costs are more than the total revenue. This would imply that the firm is making losses. The firm should also discontinue its operations in the event that the marginal costs are greater than the marginal revenue. That is, the cost of producing an additional unit is greater than the cost of selling that additional unit. The firm should also discontinue its operations in the event that the marginal revenue is zero or less. This is with regard to the law of diminishing marginal revenue which holds that the revenue from selling an additional unit will increase to a point where an additional unit of input will not increase the quantity produced. In this case therefore, extra costs will be incurred in the process of producing an extra unit but revenue will not change. This is an unproductive phase of production. Suggest one (1) pricing policy that will enable your low-calorie, frozen microwavable food company to maximize profits. Provide a rationale for your suggestion. At ceteris Paribus, the demand function of the market is The demand equation will be as shown below, with all other factors held constant: Q = -5200 – 42*(P) + 20*600 + 5.2*5500 + 0.2*10000 + 0.25*5000 Q = 38650 – 42(P) P = 38650/42 – (Q)/42 The equilibrium prices and quantities are; 5200 + 45P=38650 – 42P 33,450=87P P = 384.48 Q = 5200 + 45*(384.48) = 22,501.6 Total Revenue = Price X Quantity = {38650/42 – (Q)/42  }Q MR= 38650/42 = 920. 23 = P The average revenue should be equal to the price and give the demand function. The best pricing solution that this firm can and should make is to produce at this price. Outline a plan, based on the information provided in the scenario, which the company could use in order to evaluate its financial performance. Consider all the key drivers of performance, such as company profit or loss for both the short term and long term, and the fundamental manner in which each factor influences managerial decisions. Being a firm under the oligopoly market structure, the firm should put the concept of price leadership into practice. Essentially, this simply implies that the firm should be able to put itself out as a dominant firm and as such it should be able to command the authority to set the prices in the market. It should also be able to be the firm that commands any change when it comes to prices in such a way that it has the ability to change prices while the other firms follow suit. The firm therefore is in a situation in which it is able to control prices to its benefit. As a consequence, the other competing firms will not be able to maximize their own profits unless they follow the prices that are set by this firm. In other words, a special monopoly is created in the duopoly. (Washick, 2005) Recommend two (2) actions that the company could take in order to improve its profitability and deliver more value to its stakeholders. Outline, in brief, a plan to implement your recommendations. Due to the homogenization of products, there is the problem of competition especially among the buyers. This simply implies that there will be one single price for sellers. As a result, the best recommendation with regard to the action that the firm should take is to ensure that they maximize on output. A change in terms of output by the seller has a very significant effect in terms of the prices of the good that is produced. As much as the actions of his or her rivals could be somewhat unknown, it is most definite that the other sellers will change or alter the prices in a way that they will match the output. An increase in terms of the output also implies that the firm will also increase its revenue. The Collusion Solution is also another recommendation that could be used by this particular firm in question. This basically implies that the market participants could always try and join together in the event that the participants find that the competition is too much, they could join together so as to create one competitive firm. (Waschick,2005) References   Fisher, T., & Waschick, R. (2005). Managerial Economics: A Game Theoretic Approach. London : Routledge. Hirschey, M. (2008). Managerial Economics. New York: Cengage Learning. Webster, T. J. (2003). Managerial Economics: Theory and Practice. London: Academic Press. Source document

Agar Jelly Experiment Report

Aim: To find out the speed of diffusion in agar jelly, when there are three blocks of jelly of different sizes. Material: A container with agar jelly, safety goggle, knife, ruler, stop watch, a glass plate, sodium hydroxide, an indicator. Method: First, we took the block of agar jelly from the container. We placed it onto the glass plate, and took our knife and ruler. We measured and cut the block, making three cubes of different measurements. The smallest one is 1cm by 1cm by 1cm, the second one is 2cm by 2cm by 2cm, and the biggest one is 3cm by 3cm by 3cm. We then dropped a few drops of the indicator. Next, we put our safety goggles on, and took the beaker full of sodium hydroxide, and poured it into the glass plate, which the cubes are in. At the same time, we started the stop watch. We saw everything, the cubes, sodium hydroxide turn pink (that's because sodium hydroxide reacted with the indicator). When the stop watch showed 5 minutes, we took the cubes, and cut all of them in half. Then we measured the distance from the surface, to the line where the pink and the white color separate, like on the diagram, using our ruler. We recorded what we saw, and the results. Results: We saw the cubes turn pink, and the sodium hydroxide turn pink on the plate. We also saw, when we cut the cubes that the pink color travelled into the cube, and we saw that at a certain point, there was the separation of pink from the surface, to white, the color of agar jelly. Like I said, we measured the distance between the surface to where the separation line of pink and white color was. This is what we got: 1cm*1cm*1cm 4mm 2cm*2cm*2cm 4mm 3cm*3cm*3cm 4mm Although they were all 4mm, we saw that the smallest cube was almost completely diffused, almost everything was pink. And we saw that the biggest cube was not at all completely diffused; most of it was white inside the cube. Speed of Diffusion=Distance/Time 4mm/5minutes=0.8mm/minute Conclusions: From this experiment, I learned these things: Firstly, I learned that the pink color traveled into the cube, because of diffusion. Diffusion is when particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. So in this experiment, the sodium hydroxide diffused from the high concentrated area (which is the surface of the cube, as sodium hydroxide was poured onto the cube) to low concentrated area (inside the cube). I also learned that even if you change the volume, or the surface area of the agar jelly, the speed in diffusion doesn't change. As you can see from the results, no matter the size of the cube, the sodium hydroxide diffused at the same speed. The speed of diffusion can be calculated by distance/time. In this experiment, we saw that the distance which the sodium hydroxide traveled was 4mm, and the time we used was 5 minutes. So, 4mm/5min= 0.8mm/minute. Because the speed doesn't change, the smaller the cube, the faster it'll get completely diffused. From this experiment, I can expect that 1cm*1cm*1cm cube jelly will be completely diffused in 6minutes 15seconds, because 1cm/0.8mm*2=6.25min. (times 2 because it diffused from the top and the bottom). In the same way, I calculated that 2cm*2cm*2cm cubed jelly will be completely diffused in 12.5minutes and 3cm*3cm*3cm jelly in 18.75minutes. You can see that 2cm*2cm*2cm jelly will take twice as much time as 1cm cubed one and 3cm*3cm*3cm jelly will take three times as much time as the 1cm cubed block.

Human Mate Choice-science of sex appeal being biologically imperative Research Paper

Human Mate Choice-science of sex appeal being biologically imperative - Research Paper Example Therefore, it is important that proper sex appeal and science of human reproduction be clearly understood for people to understand deeply the human mate choice (Messer, 2010). Generally, human mate choice is a behavioral aspect of human beings. In relation to human behavioral ecology, it involves the evolution of human behaviour in regards the choices that people made before and the choices they make today. Indeed, due to the evolution of human behaviour over the years, it is practically impossible for people to make the same choices today as they used to make several years ago. This is basically as a result of generational changes whose influence in people’s behaviour dictate that human beings behave differently in different environments. In other words, the strategies that human beings adopt in a certain environment (for example 50 years ago) may not be the same strategies they adopt in contemporary social environment. This paper will discuss the behaviour of human beings in choosing their mates as well as the science sex appeal from an anthology point of view. According to human reproduction system and human anatomy studies, men and women are significantly different on the sex appeal choice they always make. Generally, men are always promiscuous while on the other hand women are at times selective on the choice of sex partner they choose. Again, before women make the best choice, they look for some qualities from men whereas men only go for physical looks of a woman. The major characteristic of human beings that make people different from other animals is the ability to speak and use their mind selectively. In addition, human beings’ physical appearance also makes them unique and more different on the way they do things. This differences and uniqueness of human beings make people value and even be different on matters dealing with sex from the rest of other creatures. To be more clear, it is true that biological imperatives control and direct h uman beings sexual behavior (Messer, 2010). According to studies, it has been found that sex appeal is scientifically and theoretically proven biologically imperative. This is because evolution in most cases is what is controlling human beings’ sexual desires. According to evolution, human beings are the only creatures that are able to walk upright after evolving from similar walking styles with other primates. Again, after evolution, human beings and in particular females changed their external body parts appearance including the location of the vagina, which later made it very difficult to be accessed by males (Kalbe et al, 2009). In most cases, it is always found that, due to sex differences, women tend to have likeness and preferences for partners who are higher or greater than they are in terms of status, education, and even wealth. In contrast to this, men always look for girls, who are virgin, healthy, and physically attractive (Elias, Menon, Wetzel, & Williams 2010). Evolutionary theory clearly indicates that human beings mate choices have evolved and mostly focus on the exploitation of resources, social well-being , physical appearance, and capital investment of the opposite sex partner. In most cases, similarities and differences in the choice and preferences of a partner mostly depend on the form of reproductive potential and investment of

Transcription and language creativity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Transcription and language creativity - Essay Example Not with ((confused)) exactly with wooden clog, unless it is got a veneer (.) ((laughs)) (xxx) is carefully covered wooden clog that can be a problem ((laughs)) Host: Just the first answer we had ((laughs)) so (.) no answers really from the scientists until Brian came up with clogs ((laughs)) which was unexpecting first Answer today //((laughs)). //I don’t know I don’t where (xxxxx) I don’t know what to say. Host: Oh! Come on lets carry on with the clogs. Host: An easy launch pad,[ a way to go ((laughs)) (.)Anyway back to the science table]. Introduction Conversation has different features that need to be analyzed in order to give a critical account of a piece of conversation. Conversations are mostly spontaneous; the speaker and listener develop their conversation according to the situation, atmosphere, topic and personal relationship that both the listener and speaker share. Conversation is done through language; the use of language however differs from person to person and the type of language used between two persons is a function of the nature of the relationship that exists between them e.g. the closer the relationship the more intimate the conversation will be. In order to analyze a conversation, some technical features of the conversation and linguistics of the words used is necessary. Conversation is an important part of life; it communicates ideas, feelings, intentions and goals. The study of conversation tells about the creativity used in spoken language. The language has various features i.e, context, type, tone, subject, turn-taking, interruptions etc. A study of these features enables us to get an insight into the creativity employed in any piece of work (Maybin & Swann, 2006). Discussion The above transcript is the written script of a verbal conversation. Verbal communication is an act of conveying messages, ideas or feelings by vocal means; non verbal acts are also important part of this phenomenon. This communication is the main and ordinary way of communicating face to face. Apart from these important features other key components of verbal communication are words, sound, speaking, tone and language. By analyzing the technical features, language and creativity of the conversation can be analyzed in a systematic way. The people involved in a conversation unintentionally make use of creativity. This usage is also a very important part of the conversation as it tells about how good a person is at conversation and how good he/she makes use of vocabulary, turn-taking and switching. The written script of a dialogue above is between two people, the host and a person called Paul. The conversation is based on question and answers about a particular subject; as the conversation is in the form of interview; it is supposed to be less intimate and formal. To make a more deep analysis, it is necessary to examine other important features that this piece of written conversation carries. Context is a very important p art of the conversation (Carter, 2004); it is the situation that describes conversation. There

External and Internal Environments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

External and Internal Environments - Essay Example There are social, economic, political, legal etc factors that can effect a business environment. It can be analyzed that the two main segments that effect the business environment of Nike are the economic and social segments. Nike is a company based on U.S. which is the most technologically commanding nation in the world with a high level of GDP per capita of about $49800. As the level of income of people in U.S. high they have a good share of spendable income that they use in purchase of consumer goods like shoes. Nike is considered to have the largest market share of sports footwear business in U.S as estimated in 2012. The social environment of U.S. supports the business of sports shoes manufactured by Nike. United States has high rate of urbanization (82%) and an estimated growth of urbanization of about 1.2% from 2010 to 2015 (CIA, 2013). Most of the people in U.S. wear western dresses as casuals. Thus sports and lifestyle shoes of Nike are most commonly used by the people in U. S. 2. Considering the five (5) forces of competition, choose the two (2) that you estimate are the most significant for the corporation you chose. Evaluate how well the company has addressed these two (2) forces in the recent past. A company gets affected by various types of forces like threat of a new entrant, substitutes, existing rivalry in the industry, bargaining powers of buyers and suppliers. Among all, the most two important forces of competition that are likely to affect Nike are bargaining power of buyers and existing rivalry within the industry. The buyers of Nike shoes always demand for better quality of product but at lower prices. The bargaining power of the buyers of shoe industry in U.S is very high because there are various companies that produce shoes in U.S.(Iqbal, 2013). The company has to give various offers to attract more buyers for their products. Nike shoes are athletic shoes and various types of sports companies purchase bulk of their products. The company has to offer negotiable prices to these sports companies. It is observed that Nike shoes are rich fashionable shoes that exhibit the characteristics of luxurious products thus the degree of responsiveness of the buyers to change in prices are very high. The company has various rivals in the market. Companies like Reebok, Puma, and Adidas etc also produce lifestyle and sports shoes so if the prices of Nike shoes are increased to a very high level then it can drastically reduce the quantity demanded for Nike shoes. This signifies that the industry is highly competitive. Nike constantly upgrades their customized designs for lifestyle shoes so that they can pitch buyers on grounds of design and quality. In 2010 the company has introduced a new division known as Nike Digital Sports that has invented a special technology that can track the performance of a user in any type of sports. To lead in the progressing industry Nike has adopted low cost strategies like selling products online. 3. With the same two (2) forces in mind, predict what the company might do to improve its ability to address these forces in the near future. Nike as a firm can attract more potential consumers by making their shoes better in quality and fashion than the other companies. Nike may diversify the range of their lifestyle shoes so that apart from the people who participate in sports, Nike shoes are also

What does it mean to say of a piece of instrumental music that it has Essay

What does it mean to say of a piece of instrumental music that it has certain emotional qualities - Essay Example A musical instrument being an expression of emotion in a persona or number of characters, the listener is right to imagine, in accordance with the nature and development of the music, a persona undergoing an emotion or series of emotions, or a number of characters doing so. Hence, it can be said that the idea that the emotional qualities of music are such that they are liable to induce an emotional response in the listener. This liability in a musical instrument need not be thought of as a disposition of the emotional quality of a piece of music to arouse a corresponding emotion in listeners who perceive the quality. When it comes to the use of musical instruments, a very great deal depends on the correct conception of the emotions. A common view is the so-called cognitive theory of the emotions, which is adhered to by the principal of philosophical sceptic about music’s ability to arouse emotions of the garden variety. The cognitive theory exists in many forms, which differ in both the number and nature of the elements of which emotions are said to be composed. What is definitive of the theory is that it represents each type of emotion as being defined by a particular kind of proposition or thought plus some combinations of bodily sensations, he donic tones, and feelings. Therefore, when the emotion is experienced, prompted by something perceived, imagined, or thought about, it will have a real or imaginary object upon which it is directed, the emotion being about this intentional object (Lippman, 46). Scepticism about pure instrumental music’s ability to stimulate extra-musical emotions in a listener in an artistically relevant manner arises at once from the fact that music is a non-representational form of art, presenting no scenes or actions that the listener might respond to emotionally as the viewer of a film or the reader of a novel might. Although instrumental music is extremely limited in its imitative capacity, it may nevertheless produce all the effects of imitation. Instrumental music can excite different dispositions, but it cannot imitate them. Furthermore, instrumental music has certain instrumental intrinsic qualities of an emotional nature and that these qualities excite corresponding feelings in the listener. Instrumental music, it is claimed, operates at the emotional level by some systems of resemblances. Such psychological manifestations of emotional state are an extremely important stimulus in interpersonal interaction; sensitivity to them and interpretation of them are essential social skills. However, to explain emotional response to instrumental music as occurring solely in terms of iconic resemblances between features of the music and physical expressions of emotion, is under-representing the complexity of the response to this aspect of the music. Therefore, whatever the philosophical or semantic concerns, the implication of the much preceding evidence remains that we process emotion in musical sounds, whether vocal or instrumental, in the same way as vocalizations of affective state. The acoustic signals used in the production and perception of emotion in instrumental music appear to be the same as those used in vocal utterances, such as high intensity and harsh timbre for anger, low intensity and tempo and slow vibrato for sadness, whilst variation in timing and intensity typifies fear (Cochrane, Fantini & Scherer, 58) . The processing and production of instrumental music involves important social-emotional capabilities which can be evidenced by studies of performance of music by individuals with Williams syndrome, and autism. A well-known feature of

THE FEASIBILITY OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES FOR PROVIDING FRESH WATER TO Essay

THE FEASIBILITY OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES FOR PROVIDING FRESH WATER TO ARID REGIONS OF THE WORLD - Essay Example There are two solutions which include; finding an alternate or extra water resource using conservative centralized approach. This report entails on different methods used in harvesting water to make it useful for human consumption and domestication. The methods include: a) Rain water harvesting b) Water diversions c) Desalination d) Water re-use e) Storing water in reservoirs f) Transferring water among basins 1. Rain water harvesting Rain water management which is also known as harvesting has received numerous renewed attentions as an alternative means of augmenting water sources. The method involves collecting and intercepting rain water where it falls to the ground before it gets contaminated to the extent of being harmful to human consumption (Pereira et al, 2002) as the author suggests. Water harvesting has been employed for a long time for the purpose of irrigation and restoration of lands’ productivity, used for drinking by both humans and animals, increase ground water resources, minimize risk in drought stricken areas and to reduce ( rain water harvesting, 2006 ) storm water discharge as the journal states. Water harvesting has a few advantages which includes; I. It provides a good supplement to other water sources and co- exists well with them, hence relieving pressure on the other sources of water. II. It reduces storm drainage and flooding in urban streets. III. Its maintenance, construction, and operation are not labor intensive, and the technology applied is very flexible. 2. Water diversions Water diversion is where water is directed to a certain direction where it is easily manageable and monitored. The technique used to deal with natural variability in flow consists of; diversion of water into ditches, recharge pits spreading basins and infiltrations lagoons. The practice of water diversion is widely applied in most countries especially the ones in the arid and semi-arid regions throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean terrains (UNES CO, 2000; Mahnot et al., 2003) as it was reported from the international organization focusing on water development in developing and developed countries. 3. Desalination This method is used only in water-scarce semi-arid and coastal- arid areas that are inland located where the only available source of water is either (brackish) ground water or saline. This technology of water harvesting has been used since the twentieth century as (Awerbuch, 2004; and Schiffler 2004) report about the global use of desalination capacity and its challenges. About fifty percent of worldwide desalination occurs in the Middle East, followed by North America and Europe. The future usage of desalination is emerging at a high rate with an increasing demand and up- scaling process. It promotes tourism and also acts as a recreation for the development of economy in the coastal regions (Pyne et al, 2004) as reported in the world water development report. 4. Water re-use It was recently summarized (Asano and Levine, 2004) that there are many challenges associated with water recovery and reuse. They stated that the technique used in water reuse has been employed in many countries such as the United States and Germany. Modern waste water treatment has facilitated its increased usage in up to date waste water treatment procedure. These technological processes can effectively remove environmental material, pathogens and nutrients leaving the treated water with a wide range of prospective applications. According to the water recycle survey (Mantovani et al,

Do Patients Really Have a Choice in Anaesthesia and Surgery Essay

Do Patients Really Have a Choice in Anaesthesia and Surgery - Essay Example The mere condition of having sensation blocked or the nerves being desensitized is not accepted by many and there may be each to their own reasoning for it. The anesthesia is used to avoid the person undergoing surgery from pain or distress. For different issues, different kinds of anesthesia may be used. There is general, local, regional and dissociative anesthesia, each one used in different cases as each one has their own varying effects. Consent, is now an integral part of pre anesthetic consultation. Nowadays, given the evolved role within the health institutions, plus the legal and ethical issues, the patients are informed about the procedure they will be subjected to during the surgery. Disclosure of information seems to be the most legal and ethical discussion in the consent process. Given the function of any anesthesia, this consent is vital. This reinforces the idea that the given ‘consent’ to the patient before any surgery, is not actually being asked to accep t a procedure but is being offered a range of options from which to choose. Any medical profession indeed respects the patient’s reasoned choice and their right in law to refuse treatments. As anesthetists, the consent process can serve more than one purpose. It protects the practitioner from any ethical or legal issues. It ensures that the patient has agreed to the given way of treatment. The consent is a representation of the choice the patients have today in this. (Slater. R, 2007) No matter what examination or treatment one has to undergo, one may ask their anesthetist if there is any choice in the anesthetic method. One should also understand that some surgeons are more content operating on patients who have received one form of anesthetic rather than another. This most often means that the patient has a general anesthetic, which involves temporary unconsciousness. The article on All about Anesthesia, Do you have a choice, talks about the surgeon not having to choose the type of anesthesia one will receive, unless there is no anesthesia involved in one’s case. (2012) However, the surgeon may discuss the choice with the patient and with their anesthetist. In the same way, ones anesthetist does not choose what operation one will have or how it will be carried out. Again, ones anesthetist may discuss the operation with the patient and the surgeon, particularly if one has special anesthesia problems. The type of anesthesia varies with the given situation. Example for a finger ligament being torn off or the finger’s bone being broken may allow for local anesthesia, this type of a surgery allows a choice from the range of anesthesia. On the other side, during a caesarian, spinal or epidural anesthesia can be used. This type of scenario may allow less choice for the patient because general anesthesia may be harmful to the baby. Another case may involve a heart surgery, which will involve the use of general anesthesia and confine the choice o f the patient. Given the intensity of the situation like a heart surgery, a patient can not choose spinal anesthesia for their own good. This aspect suggests that a patient’s choice depends on the situation they are in. The beginning of this article stated a brief case where the patient would not agree to get their sensation paralyzed for a while, may be due to a range of reasons. These may involve the patient not approving the idea of losing control, issue of allergy,

Freedom of Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Freedom of Speech - Essay Example The essay "Freedom of Speech" highlights that the call to convention for the purpose of devising and discussing all provisions for a constitution went out on October 16, 1786. The citizens of the new country knew that they had to have something in place that would provide for a free government instead of the loose confederation they had in place. It was realized that most of the problems being experienced by the new federation or union of states were of an economic nature and could be solved only by a common venture or government. James Madison for one read the tenor of the times and knew it was time to preserve the union they now enjoyed. A representative government was the only thing that would solve the collective problems of the union. The entire concept of a free government would have to be protected by a constitution created by elected representatives. The whole concept of a free government would have to be based on the will of the citizens who would choose representatives to a two house government which would provide for the governmental needs of the union. Something had to bind the people together for a fee government to work and that one thing turned out to be the separation of church and state. (Joseph Smith, 1987).

Unemployment in the UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Unemployment in the UK - Essay Example In this regard, the objectives of this essay are four-fold, to wit: (1) to present a clear definition of unemployment; (2) to state and determine how it is measured; (3) to identify the different types: seasonal, frictional, cyclical, structural, among others; (4) to state and clearly explain the nature of economic, social costs of unemployment and cost to the individual; and (5) to determine the ways to solve unemployment. (c) "seeking work", i.e. had taken specific steps in a specified reference period to seek paid employment or self-employment. The specific steps may include registration at a public or private employment exchange; application to employers; checking at worksites, farms, factory gates, market or other assembly places; placing or answering newspaper advertisements; seeking assistance of friends or relatives; looking for land, building, machinery or equipment to establish own enterprise; arranging for financial resources; applying for permits and licences, etc.† (ILO, 2009). As indicated, the basic criteria for being classified as unemployed are: people without work, currently available for work, and seeking work â€Å"in the last 4 weeks and are available to start work in the next 2 weeks† or â€Å"out of work, have found a job and are waiting to start it in the next 2 weeks† (ONS, 2009, 4). Unemployment is measured by the ONS through survey, the Labour Force Survey (LFS). According to ONS (2009), their office conducts the LFS every three months using 53,000 households as samples. The survey focuses on questions inquiring about personal circumstances and activities in the labour market. Then, the unemployment rate is computed first on a residence basis by determining â€Å"the proportion of economically active who are unemployed† (ILO, 2009, 7). The frictional unemployment has been defined as â€Å"the amount of

Determination of Interest Rates Essay Example for Free

Determination of Interest Rates Essay Interest rates are the payments one makes to another as the cost of borrowing funds. Interest rates should be equal to different borrowers under the same prevailing economic conditions. Various factors come into play to determine the interest rate to be paid by a borrower. This paper explores the factors used in determining the prevailing interest rates. Among the factors used to determine interest rates are credit quality, local and world economic and political conditions (Lando 143). In addition, the demand and supply of funds also determine the interest rates set on borrowings. The borrower always has a feeling that the interests charged are the best deal and that better returns will accrue from the funds borrowed. In the same manner, the lender should also feel the interest charged would have the best returns. Credit quality refers to the capability of investors to pay under a given economic situation. Interest rates are charged in direct proportionality to credit quality (Singleton et al 56). Big businesses and government can easily pay for the loans borrowed plus the interests charged. An investor may also compare the opportunity cost of money over a given period. The economic condition may be in a state of either inflation or deflation, forcing the lender to consider the opportunity cost of funds over a given period. An increase in inflation rate results in an increased rate since the expected inflation rate is also accounted for in the rates set (Sullivan et al 505-506). For instance, if in a situation without inflation, the interest rate is 4%, then this becomes 7% if the inflation rate is 3%. The declining value of collateral due to inflation may affect a borrower’s ability to pay. This will increase the risks associated with the repayment ability of the borrower. The higher risks are therefore included in the interest rate charged. Political subsidies by governments also influence interest rates. Governments can lower the interest rates on borrowers by subsidizing certain loans such as college student loans, public housing loans, and other public work program loans. Conclusion Interest rates, the excess on a borrowed money paid to the lender by the borrower, is determined by many factors. The main factor is the prevailing economic conditions. These could be inflation or deflation. The government may also subsidize certain type of borrowers to motivate them to borrow. The ability of the borrower to pay, the credit quality, is also a vital determinant of interest rates.

Effectiveness Of Bottom Up And Top Down Environmental Sciences Essay

Effectiveness Of Bottom Up And Top Down Environmental Sciences Essay Urban poor communities are becoming increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate. This is due to many reasons, such as densely populated cities and poor housing structure. There are many ways to reduce the vulnerabilities of the urban poor to climate change. One of the key ways to deal with the impacts of climate change and thus increase resilience to climate change, is to adapt to these changes. This essay will focus on adaptation rather than mitigation, to enable a more detailed analysis of top-down verses bottom-up approaches. This is not to say that mitigation is not important or that adaptation should replace mitigation strategies. Rather that adaption is solely explored to better analyse which approach is best. This can be achieved either through bottom-up approaches or top-down strategies. Top-down usually refers to management at the city and national level such as municipal authorities. Bottom-up approaches are self-protection efforts made by households and communities t hemselves, based on local knowledge (OBrien et al 2006). However, there is no clear definition and often it can be uncertain where top-down starts and bottom-up begins. The aim of the essay is to evaluate whether a top-down or bottom-up approach is more effective to deal with the impacts of climate change on urban poor communities. In order to achieve this aim, the essay will be split into three main parts: part one will outline arguments that a top-down approach is most effective for dealing with the impacts of climate change, looking at approaches from within disaster risk reduction. However the second part will challenge this and explore debates that a bottom-up approach is more successful, through asset-based adaptation. On the other hand, the third part will argue that there is a need for a more participatory approach that incorporates local communities within top-down strategies, referred to as collaborative planning (Healy . The analysis will be supported by examples from current and past practices in the Global South. The conclusions reached areà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Part one: top-down The adverse effects of climate change are already evidentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and developing countries are [the] most vulnerable. (World Bank 2003) Urban settlements in the developing world are beginning to face increasingly severe weather events as a result of climate change. Urban poor communities will be increasingly forced to cope with higher incidents of flooding, air and water pollution, and heat stress. Cities in developing countries are particularly at risk due to their high density populations, expansive informal settlements, poor land management and lack of infrastructure, such as adequate drainage channels (Tanner et al 2008). Thus, urban poor communities are one of the most vulnerable to the changes in climate. Bohle et al (1995) argues that to reduce vulnerability there needs be a reduction in the exposure of potentially harmful effects of climate change, an increased ability to cope with disasters and the process of recovery needs to be strengthened (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). One of the key ways of achieving all three of these aspects to reduce vulnerability is to adapt to the changes in climate and reduce the risk of disaster. This can be done through top-down approaches at the city or national level. In general, efforts to improve the ability of whole populations to recover from disasters are usually tackled through public policy intervention at the national scale. Thus, top-down approaches are needed to direct and implement adaptation strategies to increase resilience (Adger et al 2005b). The concept of resilience refers to the ability to persist and adapt in the face of climate shocks and stresses (Tanner et al 2008). This can be achieved through disaster risk reduction (DRR) which increases the resilience of local communities through reducing the vulnerability of people and property, better land management practices and improvement in preparedness. DRR includes hazard reduction, such as improving drainage, and preparedness for response and recovery s uch as insurance schemes. DRR involves building response capacity and managing climate risk (Sutanta et al 2008). National governments take the lead in identifying the dangers to communities and in developing strategies to cope with, and adapt to, changing circumstances. One of the ways to deal with the impacts of climate change is through disaster risk management (DRM). DRM refers to both disaster risk reduction (prevention, preparedness and mitigation) and humanitarian and development action (emergency response, relief and reconstruction). For example Tanner et al (2008) states that in Bikol region in the Philippines, there was access to safe land which reduces the disaster risk and increases the resilience of poor communities to climate change. This can only be achieved through top-down processes as city and municipal governments in developing countries are usually primarily responsible for infrastructure and service provision that is essential for the reduction of vulnerability to many environmental hazards (Tanner et al 2008). For example, Dodman and Satterthwaite (2008) point out that acti ons in Durban, one of South Africas largest cities, illustrate how top-down initiatives can increase the resilience of the urban poor in cities. The municipality has incorporated climate change into long-term city planning, addressing the vulnerability of key sectors in coastal infrastructure and disaster management (DRR). Furthermore, early warning systems are essential to reduce the impact of disasters and these are developed from the top-down, increasing the resilience of the urban poor to climate change related disasters. For example the Ningbo government in China, have established early warning systems using high-tech instruments. Tanner et al (2008) states that in 2005, when typhoon Kanu hit Ningbo, the government was able to reduce damage to the city by taking action earlier and evacuating thousands of people avoiding thousands of casualties (Tanner et al 2008). The vulnerability of the urban poor also depends on many factors that influence the amount of damage that a particular hazard can cause. There are different types of vulnerability, such as socio-economic fragility, which affect how resilient urban communities are to climate change (Cardona et al 2004). Assets held by individuals and households are influenced by external factors, such as government policies. Therefore, the efficiency of land administration and management can help build the adaptation capacity of poor people in urban areas. If land policies and management are simple and compatible with the urban poor, so the urban poor can access affordable land, then this will be one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change (Moser et al 2010). Stern (2007) argues that to develop resilient cities there needs to be an improvement in urban planning and provision of public services and infrastructure, which can only be achieved from the top-down (OBrien et al 2006). For example, in Indonesia, DRR has been integrated into spatial planning which has resulted in a reduction of vulnerability to natural hazards (Mitchell 2003). Moser et al (2010) also identifies politico-legal vulnerability, such as a lack of tenure rights. A lack of tenure rights means that communities face a lack of services and infrastructure, increasing their vulnerability to disasters. This relates to climate change-related issues as it means inhabitants have weak incentives to increase the resilience of the housing structures and as mentioned above, often live in the most hazardous sites. This can only be solved from a top-down perspective as programmes to secure tenure are not possible without government support. Thus, sustained political support is needed, as well as adequate urban planning methods and a substantial commitment of financial and human resources, which all come from the top-down. Moser et al (2010:56) argues that from a policy perspective clarifying tenure rights and developing coherent urban land policy frameworks is of the utmost importance for building resilience of the urban poor to negative climate change impacts. This also provides long term solutions to the impacts of climate change (Dodmam et al 2010). Linked to this, urban poor communities are vulnerable in that many live in extreme poverty. There are important linkages between urban poverty and vulnerability to disasters and climate change (Dodman and Satterthwaite 2008). Carraro et al (2007) argues for the importance of considering climate concerns in the development context. Thus, one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change is to include adaptation and DRR within development goals, which can only be done from the top-down. Poverty eradication will increase the resilience of local communities to extreme climatic changes, while also addressing the underlying factors which may lead and/or have led to a disaster (Sutanta et al 2008). In Latin America, it has been common for some time to define disasters as failed development (OBrien et al 2006:70). As Schipper and Pelling (2006:29) argue, measures to mitigate the risk of disaster need to focus on reducing vulnerability within the context of development , thus the most effective way of addressing the risks posed by climate change and disasters is to lessen the underlying factors causing vulnerability to these phenomena. DRR is often given a low priority by national and international organisations and so for top-down strategies to be effective then measures to address climate change should be integrated with national development programmes (Wamsler 2009). Consequently, poverty reduction as well as adaptation from the top-down would be the one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change (Stern et al 2007, Tearfund 2008). However, the second part of the essay will go on to explore arguments that bottom-up approaches are needed. Part two: Bottom-up On the other hand, top-down responses are often only seen through the lens of disaster. DRR only responds to disasters and does not take other climate change related issues into account. This presents a very partial picture of predominant patterns of weather changes and the sources of resilience of local communities. This is a key flaw Moser et al (2010) identified that urban populations in Kenya and Nicaragua were increasingly experiencing smaller, micro-level severe weather problems. These problems are not considered disasters by the major national institutions. Therefore, the adaptation needs of such communities are often ignored by national and international policy communities as the impacts are slow and incremental, but still have serious negative impacts for the majority of the worlds urban poor (Moser et al 2010). Dodman et al (2010) argue that DRR, driven from the top-down, alone is not effective to respond to climate change as it does not take into account the longer climati c changes. Thus community-based adaptation is an effective way to reduce the vulnerability of low-income groups. Bottom-up approaches are often seen as the most effective way to deal with the impacts of climate change because adaptation also responds to the slower changes in weather patterns. Bottom-up approaches to increase the resilience of poor communities by reducing the risk of disaster and adapting to changes in climate at the community, household and individual level. Dodman et al (2010) describes how Federations in the Philippines have been successful in working towards community-led saving schemes to improve housing, and thus reduce the vulnerability to disasters. Improving communities capacity to deal with climate change through DRR will also improve their ability to cope with future hazards (Tearfund 2008). Furthermore, creating policies to help reduce the risk of disasters will also improve opportunities more generally (Wisner et al 2004). Another way to increase resilience is to adapt assets such as housing to be more resilient to future weather events. One theoretical approach to respond to climate change is the asset adaptation framework. The framework focuses on asset vulnerability to climate change and identifies climate change adaptation from the bottom-up. These adaptations also work towards the slower changes in climate that affect the urban poor. Moser et al (2010) uses this framework to show how communities in Mombasa, Kenya and Estelà ­, Nicaragua are vulnerable to climate change in terms of individual assets such as human and social capital, and also in terms of household, small business and community assets such as financial and productive assets. Many poor communities in the Global South live in poorly constructed housing that is often self-built and unplanned, and thus provides little resilience to extreme weather events. Moreover, Yahya et al (2001) argue that in many developing countries, meeting gove rnment standards is impossible for many urban poor communities, forcing them to remain in self-built structures. This means urban poor communities often live in areas most at risk to natural hazards, such as flooding, because this is where either the land is cheapest or they live illegally. Thus, adapting assets to climate change at the community level is effective for dealing with the impacts of climate change. As part of the asset-adaptation framework identified by Moser et al (2010), adapting assets is one of the keys ways to reduce the vulnerability of the poor from the bottom-up, as individual assets, such as housing, were considered the most important aspects to building resilience. The key to the development of an asset-based adaptation framework therefore is the identification and analysis of the connection between vulnerability and the erosion of assets (Moser et al 2010:8) Assets therefore have a role in increasing the adaptive capacity of the urban poor. The asset adaptation framework identifies strategies to adapt assets to climate change. These strategies aim to build resilience, protect assets during extreme weather and rebuild them after such events. Moser et al (2010) found a variety of responses to the increasing severity of local weather patterns. For example in the city of Mombasa, inhabitants dug water passages in case of flooding, while small business owners constructed concrete walls to protect against flooding. As extreme weather events increase in frequency and intensity then solidly constructed housing becoming increasingly important. In Mombasa, most of the bottom-up responses to weather events revolved around adapting housing to reduce damage that would be caused by future weather events. They also protect assets during extreme weather events, such as in Mombasa they place sandbags in the doorways of houses during floods to limit the amount of damage. Communities also rebuild after such events, to ensure assets are resilient to future disasters. For example inhabitants in Esteli, replanted trees and plants, to reduce flood damage, while those living in Mombasa accessed weather forecasters which informed people of the occurrence of severe weather. These strategies have proved successful in dealing with the impacts of clim ate change, as they reduce damage to assets and thus reduce the vulnerability of the urban poor to future extreme weather events. Dodman et al (2010) also stated that asset adaptation at the community level were effective. They used examples from the Philippines, where community-based action is used in post disaster reconstruction of temporary and permanent housing and relocation. These strategies are effective when dealing with many aspects of climate change. Adger et al (2005a) argue that the most effect level of governance is bottom-up approaches. Rayner (2010) also argues that bottom-up strategies are best through improved adaptation to climate change. He argues that climate change policies should be designed and implemented at the lowest level. He also argues that approaches should focus on adaptation, which has the potential to bring real benefits to local communities. Adaptation is local in character and therefore a bottom-up approach. Part three: both On the contrary, Rayner (2010) also recognises that climate change is a multilevel governance problem. Therefore some aspects may need to be governed from the top down. However, it can be difficult to define which a top-down is and bottom-up approach and sometimes they overlap. Therefore, for policies to be most effective a combination of both should avoid confusion. As Tanner et al (2008) point out municipal governments in developing countries often do not have adequate provisions in order to deal with increased climate hazards such as flood management. The financial capacity of these governments is weak and often the division of tasks between different levels of government remains unclear, leading to inefficiencies. Therefore, adaptation at the community level is effective, but it still needs the support from local governments. The success of a strategy depends not on the scale but on how that action meets the objectives of adaptation, and how it affects the ability of others to meet their adaptation goals. Thus, the most effective way to adapt to the changes in climate would be a collaboration of both approaches. Developing countries should draw upon what Healey (1997) refers to as collaborative planning, which is the theory that local communities should be more involved and enlightened in decision making. The urban poor are often excluded fro m deliberations because of the informal nature of their communities and tenure arrangements, which generally lead to a level of invisibility and lack of voice in relation to all formal planning processes (Moser et al 2008). Nawrotzki and Oluwagbuyi (2008) recommend that combining top-down and bottom-up approaches will increase the effectiveness of policies. Therefore, the best method to reduce the impacts of climate change should be led from the top-down, to address issues such as poverty and politico-legal vulnerability, but should also include the interests of local communities. Involvement of poor and marginalised groups in decision-making will ensure a city can improve the conditions for those living in informal settlements or living in exposed locations (Dessai et al 2001). This has been achieved in Kerala, India, where political consciousness and awareness of rights and responsibilities is high at every level, resulting in a high turnout at elections. Kerala also has neighbour hood groups to represent the poor, which consist of 20-40 people who meet once a week to discuss problems in their communities and seek solutions (Tanner et al 2008). Schemes that work in isolation can often have negative impacts in the long term, and do not take into account wider effects and process. Dodmam et al (2010) points out that isolated activities in separate communities will be unable to meet broader goals without the support of local officials, and be unable to meet the adaptation needs of a large number of people (Hounsome and Iyer 2006). Combining governmental programs, NGO intervention and adaptation measures by local people to the problem of climate change will decrease the vulnerability of the urban poor (Nawrotzki and Oluwagbuyi 2008). A supportive legal system and local government is also important for supporting locally developed responses to achieve effective climate change adaptation (Dodman and Satterthwaite 2008, Satterthwaite et al. 2007). This will also help to strengthen antagonistic relationships between the urban poor and governments, as often adaptation activities may become perceived as a threat by informal settlers, and an excuse to evict them (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). In Mombasa, there is a lack of trust of governments outside agencies must gain the trust of local communities (Moser 2010, Bicknell et al 2009). Moser et al (2010) argues that if local communities are not involved then government policies will not be full informed as to what is best for the urban poor and may make their situation worse. Moreover, because changes in climate and an increase in extreme weather events will mostly negatively affect the urban poor, their participation in decision making is crucial for building resilience (Tanner et al 2008). Nour (2011) states that in Egypt, there has been a shift to incorporate local communities in urban upgrading and development interventions, for instance, there has been a community-based maintenance of local drains. There has been a joint responsibility of government agencies, the community and the private sector for garbage collection and the improvement of the environment. Nour (2011) argues that without community participation, attempts to achieve sustainable results are bound to fail. This therefore improves from top-down perspectives which are externally imposed and expert oriented. Roy and Ganguly (2009) state that participatory planning has been a success in West Bengal since the 1970s and this form of planning result in local people feeling ownership of these plans. Furthermore, the Stern Report (Stern 2007) argues that effective adaptation at the community-level, would include deliberation about actions being decided by communities rather than being imposed from above. There fore climate change adaptation should be in the form of multi-level governance (Bulkeley 2010). Community based strategies are often in isolation from one another and there is no overarching authority controlling them. Conclusion the conclusions reached are that top-down strategies are ultimately necessary, but that these must incorporate local communities priorities The conclusions reached are that a top-down approach that engages with local authorities and communities is the most effective. Top-down approaches need to also include support for local responses such as community-based adaptation. Local communities should be involved in higher decision making. Thus the most appropriate adaptation responses will often be multi-level responses. In effect, the diversity of climate change means that the most appropriate adaptation responses will often be multi-level responses. (Adger 2005: 924) in the future there needs to be connected between responses at all levels. DRR should involve a large array of stakeholders, including local communities, NGOs, local and national governments, scientists, school communities, faith groups, private sector institutions, etc. Schipper and Pelling (2006). Disaster risk reduction is largely a task for local actors, albeit with support from national and international organisations, particularly in humanitarian action. efforts in Sri Lanka in response to the 2004 tsunami indicate that policymakers are not viewing the reconstruction phase as an opportunity to take into account the potential adverse effects of future climate change-induced sea-level rise in their plans, Reducing vulnerability is a key aspect of reducing climate change risk. . In reality, national governments will take the lead

The Corrosion Of Metals Engineering Essay

The Corrosion Of Metals Engineering Essay Each year, billions of dollars are spent on repairing and preventing the damage of metal parts caused by corrosion, the electrochemical deterioration of metals. The majority of metallic materials in a practical context are generally exposed to corrosion in both atmospheric and aqueous environments. Metallic corrosion has become a global problem which has negatively affected the industrialised society; hence why it has been studied in such comprehension since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century. Corrosion also affects the average daily life both directly, as it affects the commonly used service possessions and indirectly, as producers and suppliers of goods and services incur corrosion costs, which they pass on to consumers. (ASM International, 2012). The effects of corrosion are distinctively recognized on automobile parts, charcoal grills and metal tools all of which will have a depleted efficiency once corroded. This corrosion may result in con tamination which then poses health risks. For example, the pollution due to escaping product from corroded equipment or due to a corrosion product itself. As a result of these consequences, corrosion prevention has been studied in great depth. Corrosion of various metals may be prevented by applying a coating of paint, lacquer, grease of a less active metal to keep out air and moisture. These coatings will continue to suppress the effects of coating so long as they stay intact. Examples of metals that are heavily protected in the industrial world are iron and aluminium. Vast quantities of the ores or each metal are mined and processed each year using large scale chemical reactions to produce metals of the purity required for their end use. For this report, the chemistry involved in the corrosion of both iron and aluminium will be researched as well as the methods employed to prevent their corrosion. Justification as to why corrosion happens will be explained with reference to physic al and chemical properties, electrochemistry, equilibrium, rates of reaction, enthalpy and solubility at every point where it is appropriate. Before explaining why corrosion happens, it is important to define corrosion in terms of electrochemical processes. An electrochemical reaction is defined as a chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons through redox. Corrosion is a broad and complex subject that can be examined in three different categories; electrochemical corrosion, galvanic corrosion and electrolytic corrosion. In all forms of corrosion, three components must be present an anode, a cathode, a metallic path for electrons to flow through, and an electrolyte for the ions to flow through. Both the anode and the cathode must be in contact with the electrolyte to allow the ions to flow. As well as this, oxygen and hydrogen must also be available, either directly or as a result of chemical action and the resultant dissociation of water into its two constituents. In this report, electrochemical will be investigated in terms of its spontaneous nature and self-sustainability. Firstly, spontaneity is dependent on the sign of free energy. Gibbs free energy can be defined by the following equation:; where is the enthalpy, is entropy and is the temperature in kelvins. When is negative, the reaction will occur spontaneously (Zhang, H. 2012). For this to occur the entropy must increase and the enthalpy must decrease. This can be proven as a system of spontaneity aims towards disorder which directly coincides with entropy. Also, the change in enthalpy must be negative as thermal energy will be released from the energy stored within chemical bonds in a spontaneous system. Furthermore, in this electrochemical procedure, the negative electrode is the cathode and the positive electrode is the anode. Note that metals are used as they are good conductors of electric current due to the specific ionic bonding which then allows the electrons to be delocalized and move relatively freely. When these two electrodes are connected by a wire, free electrons flow through the wire from the anode to the cathode forming an electric current. Both the anode and cathode are submerged in separate substances respective to the elements of both electrodes from which the positive ions are attracted to the anode and the negative electrons are attracted to the cathode. The anode atoms are being oxidised as they are losing electrons and forming positive ions which then dissolves into solution. This results in a loss of overall quantity of zinc metal. In practical terms, this could be considered the pitting of the corrosion process which can be defined as a form of extremely local ized corrosion that leads to the creation of small holes in the metal (ASM International, 1987). Electrons formed at the anode travel to the cathode where they combine with the positive ions in solution to turn into the respective metal. Therefore the cathodic ions in solution are being reduced as they are gaining electrons. This production of extra cathode metal can be compared with rust which is a reddish- or yellowish-brown flaky coating of iron oxide that is formed on a metal by redox reactions. With just this in mind, the electric current would flow for only a limited time as the anode would have a build-up of positive ions being formed. While at the cathode increased amounts of electrons are being pumped into it. The result is an excessive positive charge that builds up at the anode that attracts electrons (negative) and prevents them moving away. While at the cathode the negative build up repels the electrons. As a consequence of this build-up of charge, no electron flow occurs and the cell eventually fails (Dynamic Science, 2012). Note that a solution cannot have a full charge and only a partial charge. To negate this issue, a salt bridge is used which contains ions that complete the circuit by moving freely from the bridge to the half cells. The substance that is placed into the salt bridge is usually an inert electrolyte whose ions are neither involved in any electrochemical change nor do they react chemically with the electrolytes in the two half-cells (IIT, 2012). As well as completing the circuit, it ensures that the charge between the two half cells remains electrically neutral. It does this by passing negative ions into the anodic half-cell where there shall be an accumulation of extra positive ions due to oxidation resulting in a slightly positive charge. Similarly, an accumulation of negative ions will exist in the cathodic half-cell due to the deposition of positive ions by reduction. Electrical neutralization is once again achieved by the salt bridge providing positive ions to the cathodic substance. Thus, the salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality. IRON CORROSION Only a few metals, such as copper, gold and platinum occur naturally in their elemental forms. Most metals occur in nature as oxides in ores, combined with some unusable metal like clay or silica. Ores must be processed to get the pure metals out of them, and there are nearly as many different processes for this purpose as there are metals. The process, as well as the elements present, greatly influences the properties of the metal. An important characteristic of metals is the extremely significant effect that very small amounts of other elements can have upon their properties. The huge difference in properties resulting from a small amount of carbon allowed with iron to make steel is an example of this. Taking into consideration the amount of iron that is used globally, the effect of corrosion on iron alone requires millions of dollars each year. The problem with iron as well as many other metals is that the oxide formed by oxidation does not firmly adhere to the surface of the meta l and flakes off easily causing pitting (KKC, 2012). Extensive pitting eventually causes structural weakness and disintegration of the metal. The iron oxide acts as a sacrificial anode which is a stronger reducing agent than iron that is oxides instead of the protected metal. Therefore it can be said that it acts as the anode. Since the oxide does not firmly adhere, it does little to protect the iron metal. As mentioned, iron in contact with moisture and air (oxygen) is corroded by a redox reaction. The anode reaction can be expressed as an oxidation of iron atoms: Both water and oxygen are required for the next sequence of reactions. The iron ions are further oxidized to form ferric ions (iron ) ions. This can be written as: These electrons are then conducted through the metal and are used to reduce atmospheric oxygen to hydroxide at another region of the iron. Therefore the cathodic reaction is: Considering that iron atoms dissolve at the anodic sides to form pits and ions which diffuse toward the cathodic sites; ions are formed at cathodic sites diffuse toward the anodic sites. Iron (II) hydroxide forms in a random location between the cathode and the anode which is then oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to iron (III) hydroxide. This can be expressed by: From here, the iron (III) hydroxide is then gradually converted to rust otherwise known as hydrated iron (III) oxide: ; Where generally equals 3. The formation of rust does not have a designated position as it can occur at random away from the actual pitting or corrosion of iron. A possible explanation of this is that the electrons produced in the initial oxidation of iron be electrically conducted through the metal and the iron ions can diffuse through the water layer to another position on the metal surface which is available to the atmospheric oxygen (KKC, 2012). Also, points of stress, such as where the piece of metal has been shaped, are more active than unstressed regions and thus act as anodic sites. The electric current between the anodic and cathodic sites is completed by ion migration; thus, the presence of electrolytes increases the rate of corrosion by hastening this mitigation. Therefore it is evident that the corrosion of iron can be directly related to a voltaic cell and can both be defined as electrochemical cells due to their spontaneous nature. ALUMINIUM CORROSION Similar to Iron, aluminium is also susceptible to electrochemical corrosion when exposed to moister. Aluminium, both in its pure state and allow, is truly a remarkable metal as it is light, tough, strong and readily worked by all common processes. Unlike iron however, It has excellent resistant to corrosion in the marine environment, and it requires little maintenance. The fundamental reactions of the corrosion of aluminium in aqueous medium have been the subject of many studies. In simplified terms, the oxidation of aluminium in water proceeds according to the equation (ELSIVIER, 2012): This specific reaction is balanced by a simultaneous reduction reaction, similar to iron, in ions available in the solution which then consumes the oxidised electrons. In an aqueous solution such as fresh water, seawater or moisture, thermodynamic considerations can be used to represent only two possible reduction reactions that can occur. The other occurring reaction is the reduction of oxygen dissolved in the moisture: Quite similar to the corrosion of iron, the aluminium atoms dissolve at the anodic sites to once again form pits and which diffuse toward the cathodic sites while ions are formed at the cathodic sites and diffuse toward the anodic sites. Therefore: ; Where generally equals 3. Although aluminium is still susceptible to corrosion, the metal itself is very resistive. Aluminium alloys generally have excellent resistance to atmospheric corrosion; require no protective coatings or maintenance beyond cleaning, which aids greatly in preventing unsightly pitting where dirt or salt accumulate. When aluminium is exposed to oxygen, it forms an oxide surface film that protects it from corrosive attack. The oxide acts as a sacrificial anode which is a stronger reducing agent than aluminium. It is then oxidised instead of the protected aluminium metal, serving as the anode. For the most part, damage due to atmospheric corrosion is pretty much limited to fairly slightly pitting of the surface with no significant loss of material or strength. Duration of exposure is an important consideration in aluminium allows, the rate of corrosion decreases with time to a low steady rate regardless of the type of allow or the specific environment. Thus corrosion of both aluminium and iron can both be defined as electrochemical processes which are similar in nature but have different protection potentials. PROTECTION METHODS Corrosion avoidance begins in the design process. Although corrosion concerns may ultimately reduce structural integrity, they should be a consideration to decrease money loss. Good maintenance practices are another way of avoiding corrosion, such as rinsing away salt water or avoid standing water. Corrosion protection systems, for the most part, are designed to control corrosion, not necessarily eliminate it. The primary goal is to reduce the rate of corrosion by having the smallest possible current. Current is defined as the flow of charge, or electrons, per time through a conductor hence. Since corrosion is the movement of electrons through redox, it can be quantified using this equation which represents the corrosion reaction per time or the corrosion rate. To do this, two efficient protection methods are available: cathodic protection systems and coatings. All cathodic protection schemes operate on the basis of the voltaic corrosion process, so like voltaic corrosion; cathodic protection systems require an anode, a cathode, an electrical connection and an electrolyte. Cathodic protection will not reduce the corrosion rate if any of these four things are missing. The basis of this protection method depends on the difference in corrosion potentials between the two metals immersed in the same electrolyte. This causes electrons to flow from the metal with the higher activity and negative potential (anode) to the metal with less activity and negative potential (cathode). This flow of electrons continues until the two metals are at the same potential, that is, there is equilibrium between the voltages. Electrode potential is a measure of the tendency for a material to be reduced e.g. accepts electrons. Also, activity is a measure of how easily a metal will give up electrons. Thus, the more active a metal is, the more negative the electrode p otential. This principle, directly relates to the two types of cathodic protection systems: sacrificial anode systems called passive protection and impressed current systems also known as active protection. Sacrificial anode systems are simple, require little but regular maintenance, and have low installation costs. We intentionally add a metal to the circuit to supply the electrons to the cathode. When metals are in a voltaic couple, the difference in there negative potentials causes the anodic metal to corrode and release metallic ions into the electrolyte. The more negativity in the corrosion potential means it will be a stronger reducing agent and will more readily give away electrons thus corroding first. Since the more negative metal in the closed circuit corrodes first, we can control corrosion by simply adding to the circuit a metal that possess two necessary characteristics: a corrosion potential more negative than the metal that is being protected, it is expendable which is not essential to the operation of any particular system. Therefore when a metal possessing these characteristics is made the anode, corrosion is controlled. The impressed-current type of cathodic protection system depends on an external source of direct current. Alternating current cannot be used since the protected metal would likewise be alternating, between anodic and cathodic. Basically, the anode is immersed in the electrolyte is connected to one side of a DC power supply and the metal to be protected is connected to the other side. The voltaic current flow is detected and measure against a reference electrode. If unfavourable, current flow is adjusted automatically by the power supply control system to compensate. Due to the high currents involved in many seawater systems, it is not uncommon to use impressed current systems in marine situations. Impressed current systems use anodes (ICCP anode) of a type that are not easily dissolved into metallic ions, but rather sustain an alternative reaction, oxidization of the dissolved chloride ions (Deepwater, 2012). Advantages of this cathodic protection are that they can develop so much higher voltages than sacrificial anode systems, so they can either push current through lower conductivity electrolytes or through longer distances. Disadvantages include the possibility of over protecting certain metals. This can cause hydrogen embrittlement in high strength steels. In aluminium specifically, accelerated corrosion can occur of the very structure that is being protected. Therefore it is evident that this form of cathodic protection, although more complex, poses some reliable advantages as well as some detrimental disadvantages.

Quality Management Essay example -- Business Management

Deming’s 14 points were first applied to Japan and United States manufacturing but the philosophy can be applied to many different industries now. The theories can be applied to healthcare, including Long Term Acute Care Hospitals (LTACH). These types of hospitals are not as common to people, but were created to deliver care based on patient’s needs. This paper will look at an LTACH located in Denver and like many healthcare facilities, employee morale is down due budget cuts and the rising cost of healthcare. A total quality management program could potentially help the facility develop new processes that allow for positive changes. Deming’s 14 Points could be applied to this hospital and help give direction to the leadership staff of the philosophy needed to make the changes. Dr. W Edwards Deming was a statistician who did not use the word total quality management, but can be accredited with the first movement of these types of programs (Gautschi, 1992). The end product is different than manufacturing but the idea of getting the best possible end product is the same. To understand why the program would help the hospital the organization needs to be explained. Deming’s 14 could be used in the transformation because of theory base of statistical information. Deming’s 14 points would also bring direction and needed transformation to the hospital. Background of hospital The intent of long term acute care is to allow people to move from the acute care hospitals into an environment where they can get more attention and services for a longer period of time (http://www.aha.org/advocacy-issues/postacute/ltach/index.shtml). With four Chief Executive Officers, three Clinical Directors and four Human Resource Managers in the pas... ...be applied to many industries including long term acute care hospitals. By measuring and analyzing statistical information, managers can help to implement a new quality management program. The most important pieces for this hospital would be adopting the philosophy, always trying to improve and self-education. The hospital will also need to institute leadership to begin the process. Without the leadership, the changes necessary will not occur. Works Cited Albert, J., & Gilligan, K. (1990). Ready for quality? How one hospital introduced the Deming method. Hospital Topics, 68(2), 7. Cohen, P. (n.d.). Deming’s 14 points. Retrieved from http://www.hci.com.au/hcisite2/articles/deming.htm Darr, K. (1990). Applying the Deming method in hospitals. Hospital Topics, 68(1), 4. Gautschi, D. F. (1992). 14 points to improve quality. Design News, 48(17), 224.

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Good afternoon. Today I have been asked to speak about graduation past, present and future. My first graduation occurred when I finished kindergarten. This is often where we learn the most basic of principles. This is what I learned: Share everything. Play fair. Don't hit people. Put things back where you found them. Don't take things that are not yours. Say you're sorry when you hurt somebody. Wash your hands before you eat. Don't forget to flush. Warm cookies and cold milk are good for you. Live a balanced life. Learn some and think some, and draw, paint, sing, dance, play and work a little bit everyday. Take a nap in the afternoon. When you go out into the world, watch for traffic, hold hands and stick together. Be aware of the wonder of God's creation. Everything you need to know is in there somewhere. The golden rule and love, and basic sanitation, ecology, and politics and sane living. Think of what a better world it would be if we all decided to take a nap at 3:00 every afternoon and then laid down with our bl...

How to Make Draft Essay from This Outline

COMM 180Winter 2013Karen Crawford Hill Research Essay Outline—Due Week 7 Student Name & Number: Amandeep Cheema 300673568 Topic Number: (from assignment sheet): 2 Topic Name: (demonstrate your understanding by briefly explaining the topic in your own words, e. g. , characterization, theme, plot, social message/interpretation, etc. ) A theme is a piece of writing, a talk, or a discussion of an important idea or subject that run through it.In another word we can say that a theme is the central idea or ideas explored by a literary work and in order to identify the theme of the story, we need to composite, or assemble, the aspects of imagination that we gathered from investigation, and regard the story as a whole Relevant Textbook Unit(s): (identify the Unit number and name from SAU that relates to your chosen topic. Note: this is not necessarily the same unit in which your stories appear): Unit 2 â€Å"Types of characters† (p. 35), Unit 2 â€Å"Characterization† (p. 37), Unit 4 â€Å"Cultural and social setting† (p. 15), Unit 6 â€Å"Theme and interpretation† (p. 190). Primary Sources: (Required—two stories from Stories About Us) 1. A Handful of Dates 2. The Stolen Party Draft Main Points: (3 points, each relating to both stories) 1. The writers of both the stories use the method of characterization to create and portray characters. 2. The characters of both the stories had gone through certain experiences which they had encountered or undergone in the course of time. 3. Consequences which they met at the end of the stories for something which happened earlier.Draft Thesis Statement: (1—2 sentences; include subject, readings, and main points) The author of the story â€Å"A Handful of Dates† and the author of the story â€Å"The Stolen Party† are from different culture but treat a common theme of disillusionment. In my opinion characterization, experiences, and consequences are the most important aspec ts of these two stories. Planned Development: (Identify support from primary sources for main points; expand table by adding rows or sections as necessary) Point 1: (briefly restate your main point): The writers of both the stories use the method of characterization to create and portray characters.Story 1 Examples| Page| Story 2 Examples| Page| The strange thing was he never use to go out go out with his father, rather it was my grandfather. | 21 (5)| â€Å"Rich people go to Heaven too,† said the girl, who studied religion at school. | 27 (5)| Unlike other children, he used to love to go to the mosque to learn the Koran. | 22 (10)| â€Å"Get away with Heaven,† said the mother. â€Å"The problem with you, young lady, is that you like to fart higher than your ass. †| 27 (10)| As for his beard, it was soft and luxuriant and as white as cotton-wool—never in my life have I seen anything of a purer whiteness or great beauty. 22 (25)| Rosaure loved everything i n the big house and she also loved the people who lived there. | 28 (25)| | | | | Point 2: (briefly restate your main point): The characters of both the stories had gone through certain experiences which they had encountered or undergone in the course of time. Story 1 Examples| Page| Story 2 Examples| Page| â€Å"Yes my boy, forty years ago all this belonged to Masood-two-thirds of it is now mine. † | 23 (55)| Rosaura was the only one allowed into the kitchen. | 29 (55)| â€Å"I didn’t own a single feddan when I first set foot in this village.Masood was then the owner of all these riches. | 23 (60)| Rosaura felt she had never been so happy in all her life. | 30 (95)| He remembered that Masood remark to him â€Å"Palm trees, my boy, like humans, experience joy and suffering. † And I had felt an inward and unreasoned embarrassment. | 24 (100)| Rosaura thought that this was truly the most amusing party in the whole world. | 30 (115)| I looked at Masood and saw tha t his eyes were darting about to left and right like two mice that have lost their way home. | 25 (130)| | |Point 3: (briefly restate your main point): Consequences which they met at the end of the stories for something which happened earlier. Story 1 Examples| Page| Story 2 Examples| Page| I felt myself drawing close to Masood. | 25 (135)| Rosaura also leaned forward, stretching out her arm. But she never completed the movement. | 32 (175)| For some unknown reason, I experienced a sharp sensation of pain in my chest. | 25 (140)| â€Å"You really and truly earned this,† she said handing them over. â€Å"Thank you for all your help, my pet. †| 32 (180)| I felt at that moment that I hated him. 25 (140)| Rosaura felt her arms stiffen, stick close to her body, and then she noticed her mother’s hand on her shoulder. | 32 (180)| Then, without knowing why, I put my finger into my throat and spewed up the dates I’d eaten. | 25 (145)| Rosaura’s eyes had a c old, clear look that fixed itself on Senora Ines’s face. | 32 (185)| Secondary Sources: (Required—identify at least 2 appropriate, i. e. , literature specific, sources with APA documentation) 1. Hassan, W. S. (2003). Tayeb Salih: Ideology & the craft of fiction. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. 2.Diaz, G. (2007). Women and power in Argentine literature: Stories, interviews, and critical essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 3. Dasgupta, G. , & Mei, J. , J. (2005). Character and characterization. In G. Dasgupta & J. J. Mei (Eds. ), Stories about us (pp. 37). Toronto, ON: Nelson. 4. Liliana Heker. (2003). In Contemporary Authors Online. Retrieved from Literature Resource Center. 5. Khan, R. Y. (2001). Childhood and modern Arabic literature: The initiation story. Arabic & Middle Eastern Literatures, 4(2), 167-178. doi:10. 1080/13666160120057277OPTIONAL: Other Possible Secondary Sources: (Optional: secondary sources from program course material or GNED 500 material, or other non-literature-specific sources, with APA documentation) ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Planned Development: (Identify support for main points; expand table by adding rows or sections) Note: At this stage of essay development, it is not necessary to complete all sections of this table, but you should provide at least one item of secondary source support for each of your main points) Point 1: (briefly restate your main point): The writers of both the stories use the method of characterization to create and portray characters. Story 1 Examples Secondary Source Support| Page| Story 2 Examples Secondary Source Sup port| Page| Masood, like Sheikh, is a loving and kind-hearted man who is deeply attached to his palm trees. (Diaz, G. 2007, p. 33)| 33| Implicit presentation of characters in action which is used primarily through dialogue and action of characters in a story (Dasgupta, G. , & Mei, J. , J. , 2005, p. 38) | | 38| | | | | Point 2: (briefly restate your main point): The characters of both the stories had gone through certain experiences which they had encountered or undergone in the course of time. Story 1 Examples Secondary Source Support| Page| Story 2 Examples Secondary Source Support| Page| He has so far imagined that the field and playground â€Å"belonged to my grandfather ever since God’s creation,† turn out to have belonged to Masood(Diaz, G. , 2007, p. 4)| 34| Her memories of her childhood are quite clear and insightful- perhaps the reason for the numerous stories she had written about children. (Hassan, W. S. , 2003, p. 185) | | 185| | | | | | | | | Point 3: (bri efly restate your main point): Consequences which they met at the end of the stories for something which happened earlier. Story 1 Examples Secondary Source Support| Page| Story 2 Examples Secondary Source Support| Page| It is a fall from childhood innocence that comes about with knowledge. (Diaz, G. , 2007, p. 34)| 34| What she discovers is that she has just begun her own training in servitude. (â€Å"Liliana Heker,† 2003, para. 2) | | | | | | | | | | | |

Isp – Internet Service Provider

Internet service provider * ISP (Internet service provider) * Regional ISPs provide Internet access to a specific geographical area * National ISPs provide Internet access in cities and towns nationwide * Online service provider (OSP) * Has many members-only features * Popular OSPs include AOL (America Online) and MSN (Microsoft Network) * Wireless Internet service provider (WISP) * Provides wireless Internet access to computers and mobile devices * May require a wireless modem An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides access to the Internet. Access ISPs directly connect customers to the Internet using copper wires, wireless or fiber-optic connections. [1] Hosting ISPs lease server space for smaller businesses and host other people servers (colocation). Transit ISPs provide large amounts of bandwidth for connecting hosting ISPs to access ISPs. [2] Internet connectivity options from end-user to Tier 3/2 ISPs * | History The Internet started off as a closed network between government research laboratories and relevant parts of universities. As it became more popular, universities and colleges started giving more of their members access to it. As a result of its popularity, commercial Internet service providers sprang up to offer access to the Internet to anyone willing to pay for the service, mainly to those who missed their university accounts. In 1990, Brookline, Massachusetts-based The World became the first commercial ISP. [3] Access provider ISPs employ a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network. For users and small businesses, traditional options include: dial-up, DSL (typically Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL), broadband wireless, cable modem, fiber to the premises (FTTH), and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface). For customers with more demanding requirements, such as medium-to-large businesses, or other ISPs, DSL (often Single-Pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line or ADSL), Ethernet, Metropolythian Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Frame Relay, ISDN (B. R. I. or P. R. I. ), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and upload satellite Internet access. Sync-optical cabling (SONET) are more likely to be used. [citation needed] Typical home user connectivity * Broadband wireless access * Cable Internet * Dial-up * ISDN * Modem * DSL * FTTH * Wi-Fi Business-type connection: * DSL * Metro Ethernet technology * Leased line * SHDSL Locality When using a dial-up or ISDN connection method, the ISP cannot determine the caller's physical location to more detail than using the number transmitted using an appropriate form of Caller ID; it is entirely possible to e. g. connect to an ISP located in Mexico from the USA. Other means of connection such as cable or DSL require a fixed registered connection node, usually associated at the ISP with a physical address. Mailbox provider A company or organization that provides email mailbox hosting services for end users and/or organizations. Many Mailbox Providers are also Access Providers. Hosting ISPs Hosting ISPs routinely provide email, FTP, and web-hosting services. Other services include virtual machines, clouds, or entire physical servers where customers can run their own custom software. Transit ISPs Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for Internet access. An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP and/or is able to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to. In the simplest case, a single connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit data to or from areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often cascaded multiple times until reaching a Tier 1 carrier. In reality, the situation is often more complex. ISPs with more than one point of presence (PoP) may have separate connections to an upstream ISP at multiple PoPs, or they may be customers of multiple upstream ISPs and may have connections to each one of them at one or more point of presence. Peering Main article: Peering ISPs may engage in peering, where multiple ISPs interconnect at peering points or Internet exchange points (IXs), allowing routing of data between each network, without charging one another for the data transmitted—data that would otherwise have passed through a third upstream ISP, incurring charges from the upstream ISP. ISPs requiring no upstream and having only customers (end customers and/or peer ISPs) are called Tier 1 ISPs. Network hardware, software and specifications, as well as the expertise of network management personnel are important in ensuring that data follows the most efficient route, and upstream connections work reliably. A tradeoff between cost and efficiency is possible. Derivatives The following are not a different type of the above ISPs, rather they are derivatives of the 3 core ISP types. A VISP is reselling either access or hosting services. Free ISPs are similar, but they just have a different revenue model. Virtual ISP Main article: Virtual ISP A Virtual ISP (VISP) is an operation which purchases services from another ISP (sometimes called a â€Å"wholesale ISP† in this context)[4] which allow the VISP's customers to access the Internet using services and infrastructure owned and operated by the wholesale ISP. Free ISP Free ISPs are Internet Service Providers (ISPs) which provide service free of charge. Many free ISPs display advertisements while the user is connected; like commercial television, in a sense they are selling the users' attention to the advertiser. Other free ISPs, often called freenets, are run on a nonprofit basis, usually with volunteer staff. Related services * Broadband Internet access * Fixed wireless access * Cable * Triple play * Internet hosting service * Web hosting service * E-mail hosting service * DNS hosting service * Dynamic DNS